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The Zanzibar Revolution: From Sultanate to Socialist Republic

The Zanzibar Revolution, which took place on January 12, 1964, was a pivotal and bloody uprising that dramatically altered the political and social fabric of Zanzibar. In a matter of hours, a revolution led by African revolutionaries overthrew the Arab-dominated Sultanate, marking the end of centuries of elite rule and setting the stage for the union between Zanzibar and Tanganyika to form the modern nation of Tanzania.

This event not only signaled a power shift in Zanzibar but also served as a critical chapter in the broader post-colonial and Cold War history of Africa.

Background: A Divided Society

Colonial and Pre-Colonial Zanzibar

Zanzibar, an archipelago off the East African coast, had been under Arab, Portuguese, and later Omani influence for centuries. The Sultan of Oman made Zanzibar his capital in the early 19th century, establishing a powerful Arab-Muslim aristocracy that controlled trade and land, particularly in the spice and slave industries.

In 1890, Zanzibar became a British protectorate, though the Sultanate remained intact as a nominal power. The British administration worked with Arab elites, reinforcing a system that excluded the majority Black African population—descendants of slaves and local ethnic groups—from political and economic life.

Social and Ethnic Tensions

By the mid-20th century, Zanzibar’s population was composed of three major groups:

  • Arabs (~20%): Politically and economically dominant.

  • South Asians (mostly Indians) (~17%): Engaged in trade and business.

  • African Zanzibaris (~60%): Marginalized in land ownership, politics, and education.

Tensions grew between these groups, particularly as African national consciousness and anti-colonial movements rose in the 1950s and early 1960s. The Zanzibar Nationalist Party (ZNP), largely Arab-led, and the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP), dominated by African Zanzibaris, emerged as the main political rivals.

In the 1963 elections, the ZNP and its ally, the Zanzibar and Pemba People's Party (ZPPP), formed a ruling coalition, narrowly defeating the ASP despite the latter winning the popular vote. This electoral outcome, widely perceived as unjust, fueled widespread resentment.

The Revolution: January 12, 1964

The Uprising

In the early hours of January 12, 1964, a revolutionary force led by John Okello, a mysterious and radical figure from Uganda, launched a surprise assault on police stations, military barracks, and key government buildings in Unguja, the main island of Zanzibar.

Okello, who claimed divine inspiration and referred to himself as “Field Marshal,” mobilized a small but highly organized militia made up mainly of unemployed African youths. The revolution caught the ZNP government off-guard.

Collapse of the Sultanate

Within hours, the revolutionary forces had toppled the Sultan’s government. Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah fled the country, eventually settling in exile in the United Kingdom. The revolutionaries declared the end of the Sultanate and the birth of the People’s Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba.

Aftermath: Violence and Political Reorganization

Ethnic Violence and Massacres

The immediate aftermath of the revolution was marked by widespread violence, particularly targeting the Arab and South Asian communities. Thousands were killed, raped, or forced to flee, although the exact death toll remains debated—estimates range from 2,000 to over 20,000.

Properties were looted, and land was redistributed. This violence, though spontaneous in some areas, was often carried out with the tacit approval or direction of revolutionary forces. The revolution was both political and ethnic, aimed at dismantling the historical dominance of Arab elites.

The Rise of a New Government

The Afro-Shirazi Party, under Abeid Amani Karume, took control of the new government. Though Okello had played a key role in the revolution’s execution, he was soon marginalized and deported. Karume became President of the People's Republic of Zanzibar, and the island adopted a socialist and non-aligned foreign policy, aligning loosely with the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.

Union with Tanganyika: The Birth of Tanzania

Fearing the revolution might inspire instability elsewhere in East Africa—or invite foreign (especially communist or Western) intervention—Zanzibar's new government entered negotiations with Tanganyika, led by Julius Nyerere.

On April 26, 1964, just three months after the revolution, the two nations merged to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, later renamed Tanzania.

Zanzibar retained a high degree of autonomy in local affairs, including its own president and legislature, but foreign policy and defense were centralized in the union government.

Long-Term Impact and Legacy

Social Change

  • Land Reforms: The revolution led to the redistribution of land from Arab landlords to African farmers.

  • Education and Health: The post-revolution government made significant investments in literacy, healthcare, and public services, particularly for rural and marginalized communities.

  • Women's Rights: The new regime promoted gender equality more actively than the previous Arab-dominated system.

Political Repression

  • The revolution ushered in one-party rule, with dissent and opposition suppressed.

  • Alleged conspirators, especially from the Arab and Asian communities, were jailed or forced into exile.

  • Elections in Zanzibar have remained contentious, with allegations of fraud and repression continuing into the 21st century.

Historical Debate

The Zanzibar Revolution is remembered differently depending on perspective:

  • For many African Zanzibaris, it represents liberation from feudal oppression.

  • For those of Arab or South Asian descent, it symbolizes a period of trauma and displacement.

  • Internationally, it remains a case study in rapid decolonization, ethnic nationalism, and Cold War geopolitics.

Conclusion

The Zanzibar Revolution was one of the most dramatic and consequential uprisings in post-colonial Africa. It ended centuries of Arab dominance, violently reshaped the island’s demographic and political landscape, and led to the formation of a new nation—Tanzania. Though controversial and marked by bloodshed, the revolution remains a defining moment in the history of Zanzibar and the wider East African region. Its legacy continues to influence politics, identity, and memory on the islands today.